Air pollution

Air Pollution

NEA regulates sources of air pollution, imposing minimum standards to ensure that emissions remain at acceptable levels to ensure that Singapore has clean and safe air. Emission standards are specified in the Environmental Protection and Management (Air Impurities) Regulations.The main targets of NEA’s air pollution regulations are industrial operations, power generation plants and motor vehicles.

Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂) Emission Inventory

SO₂ emissions are a major issue in Singapore given off mainly by refineries, power stations, other industries, cargo ships. As shown below is the emissions data collected from various sources in 2007.

During that period of time when industrialization has grown rapidly and emissions were extreme, Singapore had specifically reclaimed a piece of land, Jurong Island, for industrial purposes.  

Sources	Emitters	SO2 Emissions (tonnes)	Contribution of SO2 Emissions
Refineries	Shell	28,278	51%
	Singapore Refining Company	26,754
	ExxonMobil	22,421
Power Stations	Power Seraya	14,194
	Tuas Power	18,382	27%
	Senoko Power	7,754
Shipping	-	28,026	18%
Other Industries	Sembcorp Utilities and Terminals	748	3%
	ExxonMobil Petrochemical	722
	Linde Syngas	546
	Mitsui Phenol	436
	Petrochemical Corporation of Singapore	208
	Invista	3
	Other Fuel Oil Users	1,300
	Diesel Users	46
Motor Vehicles	Petrol Vehicles	891	1%
	Diesel Vehicles	101
Total		150,810	100%

I think that by isolating the industrial area, away from residential and working places, people are less likely to be affected by the harmful toxins and chemicals released by the factories. Although this method does not help in overcoming air pollution, it helps to improve the problems that come along with air pollution (e.g.: haze, health conditions of the people)

Industrial Emissions

The NEA’s Source Emission Test Scheme for industries requires industries to conduct source emission test on their own or engage accredited consultants to do so on their behalf. This helps industries to monitor their air emissions regularly and to take measures, to ensure compliance with the prescribed air emission standards.

By implementing regulations, standards and having tests, factories have to abide certain rules and meet certain criteria. Those who failed to meet the standards are penalised and have to pay heavy fines. I feel that this system will benefit air pollution in Singapore greatly because factories are mindful of what they should or not release in order not to pay the fines or be “black-listed”. Also, enforcing rules are inexpensive ways of controlling gases emissions, only the co-operation of the people has to be sought for.

Motor Vehicles

Motor vehicles are a major source of air pollution. To control the emissions generated by motor vehicles, NEA regulates the type and quality of fuel that can be used in Singapore, and also sets minimum exhaust emission standards for all vehicles.

NEA takes stringent enforcement actions against smoky vehicles on the roads. Regulation 19 of the Environmental Protection and Management (Vehicular Emissions) Regulations stipulates that it is an offence for any person to use or permit the use of any smoky vehicle on the road.

It is the responsibility of every owner of a vehicle to ensure that the vehicle is in good condition before using it on the road. Besides carrying out proper servicing and maintenance of the vehicle regularly, the driver must also not overload the vehicle or drag the engine of the vehicle while driving. For 2-stroke motorcycles, the cause of white smoke emissions is usually due to addition of lubricating oil in excess of the amount specified in the vehicle manufacturer’s manual.

Again, law enforcing requires more of the peoples’ cooperation than funds hence its economically-friendly and would also prove beneficial since drivers will most likely keep their vehicles in good conditions and go for vehicle-checks than pay additional taxes or fines.

Off-Road Diesel Engines

With effect from 1 July 2012, all off-road diesel engines to be imported for use in Singapore are to comply with the EU Stage II, US Tier II or Japan Tier I off-road diesel engine emission standards. Off-road diesel engines are any equipment or machinery that is equipped with diesel engines as the main or auxiliary prime mover and not registered with the Land Transport Authority (LTA) for use on public roads. Examples of off-road diesel engines include construction equipment such as cranes, excavators, forklifts and power generators. Diesel engines used in ships, railways, locomotives and aircraft do not fall under this regulation.

All newly-imported off-road diesel engines, both new or used, intended for use in Singapore must comply with the stipulated emission standards with effect from 1 July 2012. This regulation includes those with engine power above 560kW. The engine or off-road diesel equipment can be sent to an overseas or Singapore accredited laboratory for an emissions test according to the ISO 8178 standards.

Allowing only specific types of diesel engines ensures standardisation. People either abide the rule set or pay fines. This form of using money to control people from releasing harmful chemicals and gases encourage Singaporeans to play their role in managing air pollution and the results could be as good as buying or building new machines which help clear toxic air.  

Effectiveness of Singapore’s management on Land Pollution

Effectiveness of Singapore’s management on Land Pollution

Land pollution is caused by the improper waste treatment and that could lead to damaging the Earth and Human Health. Here’s the methods Singapore is using in response to the problems pertaining to Land Pollution.

1.     Solid waste disposal infrastructure

In the past, Singapore relied on a number of landfills around the island to handle the solid waste generated on the island. However, in the late 1970s, an alternative method of solid waste disposal has to be introduced due to land constraints. Waste-to-energy incineration was found to be the most cost effective option as it can reduce waste volume by over 90%, and in 1978, the first waste-to-energy (WTE) plant was opened. Most WtE processes produce electricity with incineration plants directly through combustion,  Today, the solid waste disposal infrastructure consists of the four WTE plants located at Tuas, Senoko, Tuas South and an offshore sanitary landfill, Semakau Landfill.

This method, though produce different forms of energy, can pose a threat to the environment since emissions include toxic ashes, other harmful gases and pollutants can enter the atmosphere, turning rain acidic. Besides, natural resources like fuel and oil are used to burn the waste and produce the energy. However, over the years newer and more environmental-friendly incinerators are built and they are more efficient in disposing waste with less damage brought upon Earth. Despite the infrastructures being expensive and hard to built and labour have to be skilled to work with these high-tech machines, they prove to be extremely useful and effective in the long-run.

2.     Public waste collection

Public waste collectors (PWCs) provide services to designated domestic and trade premises in the island’s nine geographical sectors. This service includes the collection of recyclable materials from households to the National Recycling Programme. There are currently four PWCs operating in Singapore, as indicated on the map below.

To have separate and collect recyclable materials from all the other thrash and have them sent to be recycled and reuse again is a good way to practise the 3Rs often preached. Having allocated PWCs to different parts of the city proves this system of waste collection to be extremely organised. But, it requires the cooperation of the community. The residents have to dump their rubbish at the right collection area for them to collect.

3.     General waste collection

General waste collectors (GWCs) in Singapore are licensed by NEA. GWCs primarily serve commercial and industrial premises.

There are three classes of GWCs: Class A, B and C. Each class of GWC is licensed to handle a certain type of waste, as follows:

· Class A: Inorganic waste (construction debris, excavated earth, tree trunks, discarded furniture, appliances, wooden crates, pallets and other bulky items) and recyclables from residential property and other premises covered in section 10(1)(c) of the Environmental Public Health Act

· Class B: Organic waste (food and other putrefiable waste from domestic, trade and industrial premises, markets and food centres)

· Class C: Sludge and grease (sludge from water treatment plants, grease interceptors, water-seal latrines, sewage treatment plants, septic tanks and waste from sanitary conveniences in ships and aircrafts)

By categorising them in different classes, this method can be very efficient in disposing the waste. (The waste in class A might possess very different qualities as the waste in class C and therefore, require very different ways of disposal). Hence, when they are allocated to different classes, different solutions will be used to overcome them, increasing the effectiveness of waste disposal. But, this method will require much labour to sift out different materials to different sections is carrying ways (e.g. handpicked or using machines like cranes) and the machines can be expensive.

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 4.  Fines imposed on Illegal dumping

The illegal dumping of waste of any kind is a serious offence. It pollutes the environment and can be a hazard to public health.

People obviously would not want to handle all the additional taxes and bills, thus they will abide the rules and avoid having to pay fines. Using Money is a good way to “control” the people as the regulations are heavily enforced that way. But still, the cooperation of the community has to be sought for.

In my opinion, Singapore has quite a good system of managing the Land Pollution problems; they are proving to be effective through the results obtained over the past few years.

Sources:

http://app2.nea.gov.sg/topics_waterpollution.aspx

Electronic Pollution

Besides pollution around the world in terms of dangerous gases or toxic substances, humanity is now facing a 21st century problem, one much more closer to every modern society - Electronic pollution.

Televisions, computers, mobile phones, radios etc. All these electronic devices may not seem harmful at first sight. However, imagine millions of households multiplied by the number of electronic devices you have in your own household today, think of all the electronic emissions and radio signals.

Day by day this problem is slowly progressing right under our noses, as the air further saturates with satellite broadcasts and such. Wireless remote controls... Radiation from microwaves... These electronic devices have been created for our ease, yet the amount of emissions being emitted into the air every second may just threaten our health. This problem is not widely acknowledged, and society today is overly complacent about this issue.

Several known effects due to this rising issue includes 'psychological complaints including confusion, panic, paranoia, strong mood swings and violent or aggressive behaviour'. 


Perhaps this modern problem is being brushed aside due to the sheer impossibility of convincing every man on Earth to refrain from using electronic devices which produce large amounts of negative emissions. Technology has become such a large part of mankind that some people would not be able to survive without it. Another possible reason may be because of the cost involved to design radiation-reducing phenomenons of sorts. After all, in my opinion, scientists today would very much prefer investing money into curing cancer, a world-known illness, rather than preventing 'oh-so-dangerous electronic pollution'.

Air pollution in China

China's pollution now is not so much because of mining, but from coal-fired power plants, heavy industry, large amounts of construction being done and its traffic congestions. The quality of China's air is declining due to the increase in cars and heavy industries which emit harmful gases into the air, polluting it. 

These two pictures show the difference between air pollution in the Beijing Vs the air condition it is in now.

China tries to improve the air quality in Beijing by closing down factories and controlling the number of cars on the road by allowing them to drive on certain days. Chemical plants, power stations and factories that did not close down, had to cut emissions by 30% and construction work there was temporally stopped. Public transport prices were dropped to encourage people to take public transport and discourage people, at the same time, to purchase cars. These efforts by the Chinese government has significantly decreased the amount of air pollution in the city.

Pollution in India

India is one of the top 10 countries that face water pollution. Three billion litres of waste is thrown into the Yamuna River in Delhi, India and this is what the residents in the area have to deal with every day. Can you imagine yourself trying to row your boat to the other end of the river? It is clearly difficult as the entire surface layer of the river is filled with trash. Can you even think of what more waste and trash lies underneath the surface? This problem of pollution in the Yamuna River is a small scale of pollution in India as 80% of the waste in India goes to nearby rivers and other bodies of water for disposal. It's like multiplying the amount of pollution in Yamuna River by more than 10 times! Thus, more than 128 million people in India lack access to safe drinking water.

The government has spent half a billion US dollars to clean the river, however, due to its neglect of sufficient sanitation measures and its failure in creating a functional sewage system. The major problem that the people in India face is the bad condition of the city's sewer system which enables waste to be delivered to the sewage treatment plants.

People find it interesting that the river Ganges is known to be sacred to the Hindus as a goddess whose purity cleanses the sins of the faithful, but it still remains as one of the most polluted rivers in the world.

This picture shows a boy in India swimming through the garbage and waste which pollutes many of India's rivers

This picture shows a boy on a boat that could be picking up litter or searching through the litter for something of value which he can sell. In the background is litter on the surface of the river. 

Textbook Page 81!

Air transport has definitely improved many folds over the years. The article on page 81 of the Geog textbook  shows how from weak, crash-likely airplanes, the idea of air transport has spread its wings to fly with the B-777-200LR aircraft. This airplane outshines others with its incredible ability to travel nearly 3000 more kilometres than them, carrying 301 passengers up to 17 466 kilometres in distance. Instead of stopping over at transport hubs for maintenance and refueling, this aircraft can travel half the globe without having to rest. Built for long distances with perhaps larger fuel tanks, more durable material and certainly more humans who can sit in their seats for hours, this aircraft has provided a platform for more research on allowing airplanes to travel further and faster.

The most obvious advantage of this plane is that because it is built for long distances, much time and money is saved. Less flight transits would result in hours saved, attracting more passengers as most people would want to arrive at their destination as quickly as possible. Money is saved as well because these planes would be built to last through long flights, meaning less maintenance and hiring less people to maintain these aircrafts. However, on the down side, airline companies purchasing the 777-200LR may profit less. Although the plane provides direct flights, attracting many customers whom are willing to pay a higher fee for the time saved, each plane can only cater to the number of people going to that specific destination. Also, direct flights are likely to be less frequent, considering the long distance travelled. Whereas, cheaper transit flights would attract a much wider range of passengers ranging from those going to that destination itself, to those taking another flight from that same destination. Also, these transit flights are likely to be more frequent, so if passengers miss a flight there would always be another available soon. 

China VS Singapore

Recently, I have chanced upon an article regarding the transportation statics comparison between Singapore and China. I find this piece of news extremely interesting as it involves the difference in terms of transportation services both countries provided.

In my opinion, prior to reading the article, I would say that comparing these two countries can be a little unfair because firstly, China is so much bigger than Singapore and secondly, China is still a developing country with many undeveloped and rural villages while Singapore is a developed country. Hence, I think that China must be at the losing end when compared.

However, the end result was quite unexpected. Singapore was ranked 127^th in 2005 whereas China was ranked 79^th in 2005, which was so much higher than Singapore.  This stats comparison further emphasized on the rapid speed that China is developing at.  

Link to Comparison Stats:

http://www.nationmaster.com/compare/China/Singapore/Transportation

Singapore as a Transport Hub

Singapore as a Transport Hub



Singapore has an extremely efficient transport services system for every single mean of transport (Land, Air, and Sea).



Land Transport

In terms of Land Transport, bus services are catered to meet the needs of all the commuters; there is an inter-connected network of roads and expressways which link up the country, thus enabling convenience and maximum accessibility to all places. Boards are put up to show bus arrival timings so that commuters are aware and the “waiting time” is saved.



The second mean of Land Transport is the MRT. Once again, the routes are inter-connected and there is an extremely efficient system which allows members of the public to navigate easily around Singapore at affordable prices.



Taxis are available everywhere as well to bring people around. However, there might be cases of serious congestion (peak hour period), thus Road Pricing System is implemented to control the numbers of cars entering the city area.

Air Transport

There are 4 terminals catered to provide services to 50 countries, thus enabling international connectivity. Budget airlines encourage tourism and cost-efficient travel, makes Singapore a place of transit and provides more opportunities for travel. This system facilitates businesses ventures and in return boost economy.

Sea Transport

PSA International is the main port operator that seeks to provide world-class services. These excellent services are vital in building up the successful partnerships as more people choose to stop over at Singapore to rest and replenish. It provides an efficient crew, high-technological machines (cranes/containers) for the consumers, reaching out to over 600 ports globally.  

The Sunday Times 8 April 2012- Where has the crowd gone?

In this article on page 10, it talks about how the amount of business in Holland Village after the opening of the Holland Village MRT, has not increased but in fact, decreased. Though many people came to Holland Village, only a small number were shoppers. Some shop owners even felt that due to the initial surge of people that came to Holland Village, their regular customers were scared off as they did not want to compete with them to shop there. Shopper say however, that the limited variety of shops and hawker centre stalls are the cause of its decrease as well.

I feel that transport routes are increasing in Singapore and it is easier for us to get around to places. However, because of that, the competition between different shopping areas and eateries are in turn, getting more competitive. People would rather go to a further place with a larger number of shops and stalls that cater to their needs compared to a nearer place where shops are limited and they are unable to get what they want. The transport in Singapore allows them to get to a further place with convenience though it may not be as fast as going to the place that is nearer. But there are downfalls to this system as it would cause more crowds in that area and lead to a traffic congestion due to the amount of cars travelling on the same road.

A wide transport network may be good or bad for a city, it's just the level of importance that you place each benefit or problem.

Communications

Communication

Over the years, the level of technology is getting more and more advanced. People are developing new ways to keep in contact with one another through the social media. Technology has broken down the barriers to communications globally, also allowing communication to take place in a fraction of a second. There are many impacts due to this advance. People who use the internet excessively will suffer from the inability to focus on an activity for at least 15 minutes and it can even cause depression.

Transport

The transport system in the world is also becoming more advanced. For example, in Hong Kong, there is a underwater tunnel known as the Cross-Harbour Tunnel that crosses the Victoria Harbour and other tunnels can even go through a hill. In a busy city like Singapore, transport plays an important role in our daily life, be it for the running of businesses or simply just to go from one place to another. When a problem in a transport system occurs, many people will be affected. This was what happened when the circle line in Singapore was disrupted at 6 am on a Wednesday, affecting roughly 1,400 passengers. Buses were deployed to lessen the impact of the train disruption, but commuters say that the situation could be handled better as the bus drivers were not told on where to drive the affected commuters.

I feel that as the improvement technology makes things more convenient for us, we must not rely on them too much as there is always a weak spot in a transport route or negative impacts of using communication networks excessively.

Is transport and communication just playing a part in our lives and making things more convenient for us or are we getting lazier and relying on it too much that we make transport and communication our life?

The Exam Paper - with regards to esther/jessica's post

I was browsing through everyone's blogs when Esther/Jessica's reflection on the exam paper caught my eye.


Here is the link to their post : http://www.geoggies-in-trainingestherandjessica.blogspot.com/2012/04/exam-paper.html .


As mentioned, the examination was indeed a test of how much we understood and how well we could apply the knowledge learnt so far, instead of how much one could regurgitate from her memory. There were some unexpected moments such as when the paper required of us to illustrate population pyramids and a settlement type.


Ms J provided great advice when she asked us to focus on population pyramids and to know it well, however, I felt that I overlooked the depth of how much we needed to know about population pyramids. I studied and understood population pyramids as a graph, in an analytic manner. However, I never expected to be asked to draw it. It is not something way out of our capabilities or a task too much to ask from us, thus I feel really regretful and complacent about not learning how to actually draw a population pyramid. Out of the 2 marks, I can only hope I earned 1 sympathy point for the columns and numbers I drew from my vaguest of memory.


Still, the biggest question that was boggling the entire Secondary 2 level in general was the last question. Esther/Jessica stated it was something along 'why farmers diversify their crops'. However, if I recalled correctly, the question asked for the ways in which and why farmers diversified agriculture/farming. To put it simply, we had to explain how farmers categorized agriculture/farming types, and why they did so.


My answer was that farmers did this to differentiate the various farming styles across the world so as to allow for proper planning before beginning on a certain type of crop cultivation, and they accomplished this by identifying each farming technique's purpose, input and output. I was rushing to complete my paper and thus I don't recall the full answer, but I continued explaining on how when farmers understood the different types of agriculture, they could select a specific farming style to follow based on their purpose and one that was within their budget/capabilities. The farmers would be able to gather needed resources and labour to begin his farming project as well.


This is a wide question that is sure to have many varying answers, thus I feel that it is open to one's own opinion. My answer might not be 100% correct, it is just my point of view on why farmers diversified agriculture.


Whatever it is, I hope that the test paper had sent many questions running through your minds and had ignited your curiosity to find out more about geography. It certainly taught me how there is really so much more to Geography than just a textbook/test paper, Geography has no limits and is all around us. Memorizing facts won't help, embracing the understanding Geography has brought to humanity and applying it to real-life situations is what lies in these type of questions (the question mentioned above) that sift out people who memorize texts from geoggies who understand the meaning behind those words. There is a difference.

Central Provision Fund

In lieu of managing Singapore's aging population, instead of just learning about the surface facts of various methods used to tackle this problem, I decided to find out more about one particular measure in depth. This simple yet effective scheme aims to encourage financial planning in Singapore - the Central Provision Fund (CPF).

CPF, in a nutshell, helps people save up money from the moment they have a stable income, such that they will have enough money for their retirement and other expenses (resulting in the government having to subsidize less people). However, there is much more than that. How much one contributes to CPF varies with age. An employee 50 years of age and below contributes 20% of his monthly income and gradually reduces to only 7.5% of his salary once he reaches 65 years old. For employers, they contribute 16% of their income and gradually reduces to 6.5%

CPF is a stat board which can be split into 3 different categories : Ordinary account, Special account and Medisave account. The ordinary account of CPF can used to purchase houses and for investment purposes, the Special account is reserved for old age and retirement while the Medisave account is used for hospitalization expenses or medial insurance.

The interest rates for ordinary account is 2.5%, 4% for special account and 4% for medisave. This shows that the government prioritizes adequate money for health care and retirement over investments. In my opinion, it is reasonable as more money is needed for retirement to ensure that the elderly of Singapore are independent, living blissfully without having to worry about their houses not being fully paid for. In addition, as people get older, visits to the doctor will increase and so will hospital bills. The higher the interest rate allocated to Medisave accounts, the more money is saved and reserved for medical expenses, thus reducing the amount of funds the goverment directs to help the needy/elderly with subsidies.

I have noticed that there have been quite a few negative reactions to the scheme, especially towards the fact that when one uses money from his ordinary account to invest, the profit earned + the original amount withdrawn all goes back to CPF. In other words, the money will be 'stuck' under CPF until one reaches the age of 55, when a certain amount of money can be withdrawn. Or, at 62 years old, the government will allow a certain amount of money to be withdrawn monthly to prevent people from splurging/gambling, using too much money at once and having no savings left for necessities.

Wet Rice Cultivation

The Process

Seeds are planted out by hand in rows in fields that are puddled. The water levels in paddyfields are maintained a few centimeters deep so as to prevent weed growth. The toil of the workers are lessened if the water is due to flooding during the rainy season or by natural means. Irrigation using canals or wells also helps. The lack of rain often leads to drought, while flash floods can damage the crops. The grains are harvested approximately 30 days after the rice plants have flowered. Previously, a sickle is used to harvest the rice plants but now, mechanical harvesters are becoming more popular. The harvested grains are then threshed to remove the grain from the stalk. Previously, animals would trample on them or by hitting the stems on a hard surface but now, threshing machines are becoming more popular. 

A picture of a rice farmer clearing grass to create space for the rice paddy field.  






















A picture of neatly arranged wet rice plantation.

A picture of a worker observing the work of the threshing machine.

A picture of terracing on sloping land to help irrigation based on the law of gravity and it also helps prevent soil erosion. 














Problems faced:


Floods are mostly good as it provides water for the rice crops but sometimes when it is too strong and not irrigated properly, it would destroy the rice crop. Shortage of land due to the inability to house the large families of the farmer. Little use of machinery as there is little capital as an input. Abundant manual is needed or hired labour as most of the methods of wet rice cultivation is through manual labour. Too much fertilisers would contaminate the water and cause eutrophication.